sing. p-Omotic ; PS, Eg., Ch. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. Afro-Asiatic has been hypothesized to be related to many other language families. innovation: stem + *n n. suff. Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). p-Khoe [179] However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. Dalby, Andrew. [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. [15] Hamitic was coined by Ernest Renan in 1855, to refer to languages that seemed similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. See . p-Semitic, Khoisan [42] Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,[43] but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. ), (root *-sa-, seen also in #539 preceding, + *w inchoative), (2nd root shape *-caab- seen in PEC v. and Banna (SOm) 'white,' is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for), indefinite pronoun stem (one, someone, somebody), (stem + * iter. Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. Retard. 2.11. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. reflex), (root #723 + *x extend. These records make it possible to classify and reconstruct many languages. [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. Jalaa [17] The name refers to the fact that this is the only major language family with members in both Africa and Asia. [30] Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad basin, with the exception of Hausa. PSom-III. [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. in *n, as also in #210) 324. [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. [32] It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. innovation: generalization of pl. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . [197], There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. p-Daju Nara [103] Igor M. Diakonoff proposed that Proto-AA had a three vowel system of long and short a, i, and u. [159] The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. 3 The Phonemes of English - A. Cohen 1971-07-31 I gladly take this opportunity to convey my heartfelt thanks to those who have guided me on my way as an [21] They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Afroasiatic. ; short vowel required by derived verb #399), calabash (used as container, utensil, etc. in a word must match. In current scholarship, the most common names used for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. [137][d] Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. p-Masa Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . [54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu) innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg. . London, Bloomsbury, 1998. for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. [71] In the end, Meinhof's classification included languages from every family in Africa that is recognized by modern linguistics. [109] Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.[110][111]. Oko innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). Mimi-N [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. p-Central Chadic suff. [9] ( [166], The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. *kop-sole (of foot . BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. (abbrev. [105], Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. Afroasiatic(Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasianand in older sources as Hamito-Semitic(Chamito-Semitic)[3]or Semito-Hamitic,[4]is a large language familyof about 300 languages. Kim [88], Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). . innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. ; semantics: egg curves at every point? [165] This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. rather than the subject and object. Kujarge [196] Additionally, because Egyptian is written without vowels before the Coptic period, its use for comparative purposes often relies on vocalic reconstructions that themselves depend on comparisons with other Afroasiatic languages. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . As Egyptian is spelled without vowels, it is difficult to know whether it had internal change plurals. p-Heiban 6), (Eg., Sem., Cush. [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded, the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach, or Afroasiatic is a typological, not a genetic group of languages. Kanuri suff. *iw- 'cow') (Eg., Sem. Tivoid There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. as ELL). Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. The HmongMien languages also known as MiaoYao and rarely as Yangtzean1 are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. West Semitic brought forth such languages as Canaanite, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (EL, p.906). [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. suff. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. suff. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6-9. p-Fula-Sereer Dictionary of Languages. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Origins, Migrations, and Language Contacts. Of all of the languages in the Afro-Asiatic line, Arabic is the most widely spoken language, stretching from Western Africa to the Middle East (ELL, p.51). C. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. London: Routledge, 1990. n. pref. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, Eber ("Ever" in Hebrew), mentioned in Genesis 10:21. [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. innovation: addition of *t n. 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Shabo Beboid innovation: addition of *b extend., imputing meaning 'to count'), to show, bring to (ones) notice or attention, (Ch., Berber, and Eg. [113] These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) p-Nubian Upload your video About the author Yendang suff. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. Laal Atlantic (Guinea) Sandawe innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. innovation: n. 'morning' by addition of *r n. 2.12. Since there is written data available from this region, it is easier to reconstruct ancient roots and find common characteristics (ELL, p.51). show more innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). The proto-language of each Afroasiatic branch developed its own distinct vocabulary of food production, further supporting the view that herding and cultivation emerged separately in each branch after the proto-Afroasiatic period ( 7, 8 ). [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. innovation: 'increase' > 'grow in size'), (root #838 + * part. Sumerian- tamil links ( included links with turkish ( said to be closed to sumerian by panturkists which also said dravidian and turkish cognated when we know dravidians were first people of asia coming from black african L3haplogroup), yeniseian ( intermediate between turkish and chinese and member of sino caucasian family that links chinese to north caucesian langages who according to . They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. [31] They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. Voegelin, C.F. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. [99] Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony. US$62.00 (softcover). [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. Momo ), to fit on top of, go above or in front of, (Eg., Sem. There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. Ongota This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. to different specific animals), (possible vowel reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Ch. Defaka . North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. !Kung, Bangime Once the Luwian hieroglyphics for God "" and Gate "" were discovered at Gbekli Tepe, this author was able to directly link the site's carved pillars and pillar enclosures to the Abrahamic/Mosaic "Word of God", .
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